The Impact of Environmental Stress Factors on Egyptian Finances in the Last Quarter of the Eighteenth Century
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15739401Anahtar Kelimeler:
Egypt, Irsaliyyah Revenue, Climate, Plague, Environment, Financial CollapseÖzet
Climate plays a crucial role in sustaining Egypt’s agricultural economy, which was essential for fulfilling financial obligations to Istanbul, including planting, taxation, and monetary transactions. However, during the late eighteenth century, various institutions, particularly the Egyptian financial system, experienced severe disruptions. The state's inability to effectively govern the province, its failure to remit taxes, and the disruption of agricultural activities led to a breakdown in social cohesion. As a result, Egypt’s political, economic, and military structures underwent significant disintegration. Existing historiography on this period has largely focused on archival records and local chronicles. However, climate particularly in connection with disease and environmental vulnerability remains a relatively underexamined factor despite its central role in shaping economic organization.
This study investigates the impact of environmental stressors such as climate variability, geographical challenges, epidemics, rebellions, and wars on Egypt’s financial collapse during the late eighteenth century. By utilizing primary sources, including the Ottoman Archives of the Republic of Turkey (BOA), contemporary chronicles, and French reports on the Nile River, this research integrates dendrochronological data for comparative analysis. The correlation between climate variability, economic instability, and political conflicts underscores the critical role of climate history in understanding the complexities of late eighteenth century Egypt.
Referanslar
-Archives
Devlet Arşivleri Başkanlığı Osmanlı Arşivi
BOA. D.BŞM.MSR.d. 16893; BOA.TS.MA.e. 384-39; TS.MA.e. 640-48; BOA. D.BŞM.MSR.d. 16903; BOA.D.BŞM.ZMT.d. 13837; D.BŞM.MSR.d. 16906A; BOA.HAT. 29-1358; BOA. HAT. 1430-58530; BOA.HAT.29-1363; BOA. D.BŞM.MSR.d. 16908; BOA.TS.MA.e. 872-19; BOA.TS.MA.d. 2890); BOA. C.IKTS.44.2186-2; BOA.CDRB.7.333.1; BOA.HAT. 1399-56283; BOA.C.ML. 52-2431; BOA.HAT.1412-57500; BOA. ML.VRD.TMT.d. 12063; BOA.C.DH.35-1722-1; BOA.C.DRB.7-333-2; BOA.HAT.212-11499; BOA.HAT, 1411-57363; BOA.C.DH.145-7243-1; BOA.HAT.117; BOA.C.DH.42.2083.1; BOA. C.ML.629-25867.
-Books, Chronicles and Articles
ABDUL RAHMAN, Abdul Rahim, “Financial Burden on the Peasent Under the Aegis of the Iltizam System in Egypt”, Journal of the African Studies vol.12 1976, pp.122-138.
AL-JABARTÎ, ‘Abd Al-Rahman, “Abd Al-Rahman Al-Jabartî’s History Of Egypt, ‘Ajâ’ib Al-Âthâr Fi’l-Tarâjim Wa’l-Akhbâr”, Translated by Thomas Philipp and M. Perlmann, 2 vols. Franz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart 1994.
AMICI, F., Essai De Statistique Generale De L’egypte Annees 1873, 1874, 1875, 1876, 1877, Imprimerie Française Maurés, Le Caire 1879.
BANYARD, Ashley C. and Bertus K. Rima, Thomas Barrett, “The Morbilliviruses” Rinderpest and Peste des Petits Ruminants Virus Plagues of Large and Small Ruminants, edited by Tom Barrett, Paul-Pierre Pastoret and William Taylor, Elsevier Press, United Kingdom 2006.
BONHOMME, Edna, “Plagued Bodies and Spaces: Medicine, Trade, and Death in Ottoman Egypt and Tunisia, 1705–1830 CE” PhD diss., Princeton University 2017.
BROUWERS, Thomas J. and Zeijst, Bernard Am Van Der Zeijst, “Vaccine Production, Safety, And Efficacy” Encylopedia of Virology, edited by Dennis Bamford and Mark Zuckerman. 5 vols, Elsevier Press, Cambridge 2021, pp. 281-289.
ÇAKIR, Baki, “Kese”, Ek-2, 42-23. İslam Araştırmaları Merkezi, TDVİA İstanbul https://cdn2.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/EK-2/CEK214991.pdf
CARMICHAEL, Ann G., “Bubonic Plague”, The Cambridge World History of Human Disease, edited by Kenneth F. Kıple, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2008.
CLOT, Bey, De La Peste Observee En Egypte, Paris 1840.
CONCEİCAO, Carina and Dalan Bailey, “Animal Morbilliviruses (Paramyxoviridae)”, Encyclopedia of Virology, edited by Dennis Bamford and Mark Zuckerman, vol. 5, Elsevier Press, Cambridge 2021, pp. 68-79.
COOK, Edward R., Richard Seager, Yochanan Kushnir, Keith R. Briffa, Ulf Bungen, David Frank, Paul J. Krusic, et al. “Old World Megadroughts And Pluvials During The Common Era”, Science Advances vol. 1 2015, pp. 1-9. Doi: 10.1126/Sciadv.1500561
CUNO, Kenneth, The Pasha’s Peasants Land, Society, and Economy in Lower Egypt 1740-1858, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1992.
ENGEL, Mücahide Nihal, “Ottoman Egypt In the Mid Eighteenth Century-Local Interest Groups and Their Connection with and Rebellions against the sublime Porte and Resistance to State Authority”, PhD diss., University of Birmingham 2017.
GABER, Mona, Ahmad Abdelraouf, Alzahrea El-Kady, Asmaa M., Tolba, Mohammed Suzuki, Mohammed Yutaka, Shereen M. Elossily et al. “Dengue Fever as a Reemerging Disease in Upper Egypt: Diagnosis, Vector Surveillance, and Genetic Diversity Using Rt-Lamp Assay”, Journal of Plus One, 2022, pp. 1-12.
GENÇ, Osman Onur. “An Example of Local Treasure in Ottoman Egypt “Kushufiyah” (1711-1795)” Master diss., Hacettepe University 2021.
HALDON, John, Annelise Binois-Roman, Merle Eisenberg, Adam Izdebski, Lee Mordechai, , Timothy Newfield, Philip, Slavin, et al. “Between Resilience and Adaptation: A Historical Framework for Understanding Stability and Transformation of Societies to Shocks and Stress”, Covid-19: Systemic Risk And Resilience, edited by Igor Linkov, Jesse M. Keenan and Benjamin D. Trump. Switzerland: Springer, 2021.
HALL, Thomas L., and Victor W. Sidel. ‘Diseases of the Modern Period in China.’ The Cambridge World History of Human Disease, edited by Kenneth F. Kıple, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2008.
LE PERE, M, “Memoire Sur La Valléé Du Nil”, Description De L’egypte Ou Recueil Des Observations Et Des Recherches, edited by F. Panckoucke, Paris, 1822.
LUTERBACHER, J., T.P. Newfield, E. Xoplaki, E. Nowatzki, Zhang Luther, N. M. Khelifi. ‘Past Pandemics and Climate Variability Across The Mediterranean.’ Euro-Mediterranean Journal for Environmental Integration, vol. 5 no.46, 2020 pp. 8-10. Https://Doi.Org/10.1007/S41207-020-00197-5
MCGOWAN, Bruce, “Ayanlar Çağı 1699-1812”, Osmanlı Imparatorluğunun Ekonomik ve Sosyal Tarihi, edited by Halil İnalcık and Donald Quataert, 761-884, Eren Yayınları, Istanbul 2006.
MCSHERRY, James, “Dengue”, The Cambridge World History of Human Disease, edited by Kenneth F. Kıple, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2008.
MIKHAIL, Alan, “Plague And Environment in Late Ottoman Egypt’, Water on Sand, edited by Alan Mikhail, Oxford University Press, New York 2013, pp. 111-131.
MIKHAIL, Alan, Nature and Empire in Ottoman Egypt an Environmental History, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2011.
MIKHAIL, Alan, Under Osman’s Tree the Ottoman Empire, Egypt & Environmental History, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London 2017.
PANZAC, Daniel. La Peste Dans L’Empire Ottoman, trans. Serap Yılmaz, Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları, İstanbul 2011.
PETER, Gran, Islamic Roots of Capitalism: Egypt 1760-1840, Syracuse University Press, New York 1998.
PIERRE PASTORET, Paul, “Rinderpest: A General Introduction” Rinderpest and Peste des Petits Ruminants Virus Plagues of Large and Small Ruminants, edited by Tom Barrett, Paul-Pierre Pastoret and William Taylor, Elsevier Press, United Kingdom 2006, pp. 1-12.
SANKARAN, Neeraja, Robin A. Weiss, “Viruses: Impact on Science and Society” Encyclopedia of Virology, edited by Dennis Bamford and Mark Zuckerman, Elsevier Press, Cambridge 2021, pp. 671-680.
SERT, Özlem. “Environmental History of Rice Plantations in the Early Modern Ottoman Empire Between the 15th and 19th Centuries and Its Potential for Climate Research”, Journal of Environmental Geography, vol.14 no.1-2, 2021 pp.1-14.
SHAW, J. Stanford. Ottoman Egypt in the Eighteenth Century, The Nizamname-i Mısır of Cezzar Ahmed Pasha, Harvard University Press, Cambridge 1962.
SHAW, J. Stanford, The Financial and Administrative Organization and Development of Ottoman Egypt 1517-1798, Princeton University Press, Princeton 1962.
Statistique D’el Egypte. Alexandrie, 1870.
VALLAT, Bernard, “Foreword”, Rinderpest and Peste des Petits Ruminants Virus Plagues of Large and Small Ruminants, edited by Tom Barrett, Paul-Pierre Pastoret and William Taylor, Elsevier, United Kingdom 2006.
VARLIK, Nükhet, Plague and Empire in The Early Modern Mediterranean World The Ottoman Experience 1547-1600, Combridge University Press, Cambridge 2015.
WOAH (World Organization For Animal Health) “Rinderpest”, accessed January 20, 2024, https://www.woah.org/en/disease/rinderpest/ .
WOHLSEIN, Peter, Jeremiah Saliki, “Rinderpest and Peste des Petits Ruminants the Diseases: Clinical Signs and Pathology”, Rinderpest and Peste des Petits Ruminants Virus Plagues of Large and Small Ruminants, edited by Tom Barrett, Paul-Pierre Pastoret and William Taylor, Elsevier Press, United Kingdom 2006, pp. 68-85.
YILMA, Tilahun, “A Modern Vaccine for an Ancient Plague: Rinderpest”,Naturebiotechnology 8 (1990): 1007-1009.
İndir
Yayınlanmış
Nasıl Atıf Yapılır
Sayı
Bölüm
Lisans
Telif Hakkı (c) 2025 Osman Onur Genç
Bu çalışma Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ile lisanslanmıştır.
